Overview

Capital Phnom Penh Land Area 181,035 sq.km Population 13.124764 Million (2003 est.) Official Language Khmer Currency Riel (US$1 = 4000 Riels) Major Export Products Garments/Textile Product, Sawn Wood Furniture and Rubber Major Industries Textiles and Garments, Beverage, Food Processing, Wood Processing Head of State His Majesty Samdech Preah Baromneath Norodom Sihamoni Head of Government His Excellency Samdech Hun Sen Prime Minister

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CONSTITUTION

OF THE KINGDOM OF CAMBODIA
Preamble

WE, THE PEOPLE OF CAMBODIA

Having known a grand civilization of a prosperous, powerful, and glorious nation whose prestige radiates like a diamond,

Having endured sufferings and destructions and having experienced a tragic decline in the course of the two decades,

Having awakened, stood up with a resolute determination to strengthen the national unity, to preserve and defend Cambodia's territory and its precious sovereignty and the prestige of Angkor civilization, and to restore Cambodia into an "Island of Peace" based on a multi-party liberal democratic regime guaranteeing human rights and the respect of law, and responsible for the destiny of the nation always evolving toward progress, development, prosperity, and glory,

WITH THIS RESOLUTE WILL
We inscribe the following as the Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia:

CHAPTER I:
CHAPTER II:
CHAPTER III:
CHAPTER IV:
CHAPTER V:
CHAPTER VI:
CHAPTER VII:
CHAPTER VIII:
CHAPTER IX:
CHAPTER X:
CHAPTER XI:
CHAPTER XII:
CHAPTER XIII:
CHAPTER XIV:
CHAPTER XV:
CHAPTER XVI: SOVEREIGNTY
THE KING
THE RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS OF KHMER CITIZENS
ON POLICY
ECONOMY
EDUCATION, CULTURE, SOCIAL AFFAIRS
THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY
THE SENATE
THE ASSEMBLY AND THE SENATE
THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT
THE JUDICIARY
THE CONSTITUTIONAL COUNCIL
THE ADMINISTRATION
THE NATIONAL CONGRESS
EFFECTS, REVISIONS AND AMENDMENTS OF THE CONSTITUTION
TRANSITIONAL PROVISIONS

CHAPTER I: SOVEREIGNTY

Article 1:
Cambodia is a Kingdom with a King who shall rule according to the Constitution and to the principles of liberal democracy and pluralism.
The Kingdom of Cambodia shall be independent, sovereign, peaceful, permanently neutral and non-aligned country.

Article 2:
The territorial integrity of the Kingdom of Cambodia, shall absolutely not to be violated within its borders as defined in the 1/100,000 scale map made between the year 1933-1953 and internationally recognized between the years 1963 - 1969.

Article 3:
The Kingdom of Cambodia is an indivisible state.

Article 4:
The motto of the Kingdom of Cambodia is: "Nation, Religion, King".

Article 5:
The official language and script is Khmer.

Article 6:
Phnom Penh is the capital of the Kingdom of Cambodia. The national flag, anthem and coat-of-arms shall be defined in Annexes I-II and III

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CHAPTER II: THE KING

Article 7:
The King of Cambodia shall reign but shall not govern.
The King shall be the Head of State for life. The King shall be inviolable.

Article 8:
The King of Cambodia shall be a symbol of unity and eternity of the nation.
The King shall be guarantor of the national independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity of the Kingdom of Cambodia, the protector of rights and freedom for all citizens and the guarantor of international treaties.

Article 9:
The King shall assume the august role of arbitrator to ensure the faithful execution of public powers.

Article 10:
The Cambodian monarchy shall be an appointed regime.

Article 11- New (As amended March 1999):
In the case that the King cannot perform His normal duties as Head of State owing to His serious illness as certified by doctors chosen by the President of the Senate, the President of the Assembly and the Prime Minister the President of the Assembly and Senate shall perform the duties of Head of state as "Regent"
In the case of the President of the Senate cannot perform his duties as the acting Head of State replacing the King as "Regent" when he is ill seriously as provided in the above paragraph the President of Assembly shall take them over.
In the case as stated in the above paragraph, other dignitaries as following hierarchy can perform Acting Head of State as Regent:

1. First Vice-President of the Senate
2. First Vice-President of the Assembly
3. Second Vice-President of the Senate
4. Second Vice-President of the Assembly

Article 12- New (As amended March 1999):
In case of the death of the King, the President of the Assembly Senate shall take over the responsibility as Acting Head of State in the capacity of Regent of the Kingdom of Cambodia.
In the case that the President of the Senate cannot perform his duties of the acting Head of State as "Regent" in the place of the King on the death of the King the responsibilities of Head of State in the capacity of regent shall be exercised in conformity with the second and third paragraph of new Article 11.

Article 13- New (As amended March 1999):
Within a period of not more than seven days, the Royal Council of Throne shall choose the new King of the Kingdom of Cambodia.
The Royal Council of the Throne shall consist of:

* The President of the Senate
* The President of the Assembly
* The Prime Minister
* The Chiefs of the Order Mohanikay and Thammayut
* The First and Second Vice-President of the Senate
* The First and Second Vice-President of the Assembly

The organization and functioning of the Council of the Throne shall be determined by law.

Article 14:
The King of Cambodia shall be a member of the Royal family, of at least 30 years old, descending from the blood line of King Ang Duong, King Norodom or King Sisowath.
Upon enthronement, the King shall take the oath of allegiance as stipulated in Annex IV.

Article 15:
The wife of the reigning King shall have the royal title of Queen of Cambodia.

Article 16: The Queen of the Kingdom of Cambodia shall not have the right to engage in politics, to assume the role of Head of State or Head of Government, or to assume other administrative or political roles.
The Queen of the Kingdom of Cambodia shall exercise activities that serve the social, humanitarian, religious interests, and shall assist the King with protocol and diplomatic functions.

Article 17:
The provision as stated in the first clause of Article 7, "the King of Cambodia shall reign but shall not govern", absolutely shall not be amended.

Article 18- New (As amended March 1999):
The King shall communicate with the Assembly by royal messages.
These royal messages shall not be subject to discussion by the Senate and the National Assembly.

Article 19:
The King shall appoint the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers according to the procedures stipulated in Article 100.

Article 20:
The King shall grant an audience twice a month to the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers to hear their reports on the State of the Nation.

Article 21:
Upon Proposals by the Council of Ministers, the King shall sign decrees (Kret) appointing, transferring or ending the mission of high civil and military officials, ambassadors and Envoys Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary.
Upon proposals by the Supreme Council of Magistracy, the King shall sign decrees (Kret) appointing, transferring or removing judges.

Article 22- New (As amended March 1999):
When the nation faces danger, the king shall make a proclamation to the people putting the country in a state of emergency after agreement with the Prime Minister, the president of Assembly and the president of the Senate.

Article 23:
The King is the Supreme Commander of the Royal Khmer Armed Forces. The Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Khmer Armed Forces shall be appointed to command the Armed Forces.

Article 24- New (As amended March 1999):
The King shall serve as Chairman of the Supreme Council of National defense to be established by law.
The King shall declare war after approval of the Assembly and the Senate.

Article 25:
The King shall receive letters of credentials from ambassador or envoys extraordinary and plenipotentiary of foreign countries accredited to the Kingdom of Cambodia.

Article 26- New (As amended March 1999): The King shall sign and ratify international treaties and conventions after a vote of approval by the National Assembly and the Senate.

Article 27:
The King shall have the right to grant partial or complete amnesty.

Article 28- New (As amended March 1999):
The King shall sign the law promulgating the Constitution; laws adopted by the National Assembly and laws completely reviewed by the Senate and shall sign the Royal decree presented by the Council of Ministers.
In the case that the King is serious illness and is hospitalized abroad, the King has the right to delegate the power of signing of the above laws and royal decrees to the Acing head of State through delegating writs.

Article 29:
The King shall establish and confer national medals proposed by the Council of Ministers. The King shall confer civil and military ranks as determined by law.

Article 30- New (As amended March 1999):
In the absence of the King, the President of the Assembly Senate shall assume the duties of acting Head of State. In the case that the President of the Senate cannot perform his duties as the acting Head of State replacing the King due to his absence, the responsibilities as the Acting Head of State shall be exercised in conformity with second and third paragraph of new Article 11.

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CHAPTER III: THE RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS OF KHMER CITIZENS

Article 31:
The Kingdom of Cambodia shall recognize and respect human rights as stipulated in the United Nations Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human rights, the covenants and conventions related to human rights, women's and children's rights.
Every Khmer citizen shall be equal before the law, enjoying the same rights, freedom and fulfilling the same obligations regardless of race, color, sex, language, religious belief, political tendency, birth origin, social status, wealth or other status. The exercise of personal rights and freedom by any individual shall not adversely affect the rights and freedom of others. The exercise of such rights and freedom shall be in accordance with the law.

Article 32:
Every Khmer citizen shall have the right to life, personal freedom, and security.
There shall be no capital punishment.

Article 33:
Khmer citizens shall not be deprived of their nationality, exiled or arrested and deported to any foreign country unless there is a mutual agreement on extradition.
Khmer citizens residing abroad enjoy the protection of the State.
The Khmer nationality shall be determined by a law.

Article 34- New (As amended March 1999):
Khmer citizens of either sex shall enjoy the right to vote and to stand as candidates for the election.
Khmer citizens of either sex at least eighteen years old have the right to vote.
Citizens of either sex at least twenty-five years old, have the right to stand as candidates for the election.
Citizens of either sex at least forty years old, have the right to stand as candidates for the election of senators.
Provisions restricting the right to vote and the right to stand as candidates of the election shall be determined by law.

Article 35:
Khmer citizens of either sex shall have the right to participate actively in the political, economic, social and cultural life of the nation.
Any suggestions from the people shall be given full consideration by the grant of the State.

Article 36:
Khmer citizens of either sex shall enjoy the right to choose any employment according their ability and to the needs of the society.
Khmer citizens of either sex shall receive equal pay for equal work.
The work by housewives in the home shall have the same value as what they can receive when working outside the home.
Every Khmer citizen shall have the right to obtain social security and other social benefits as determined by law.
Khmer citizens of either sex shall have the right to form and to be member of trade unions.
The organization and conduct of trade unions shall be determined by law.

Article 37:
The right to strike and to non-violent demonstration shall be implemented in the framework of a law.

Article 38:
The law guarantees there shall be no physical abuse against any individual.
The law shall protect life, honor, and dignity of the citizens.
The prosecution, arrest, or detention of any person shall not be done except in accordance with the law.
Coercion, physical ill-treatment or any other mistreatment that imposes additional punishment on a detainee or prisoner shall be prohibited. Persons who commit, participate or conspire in such acts shall be punished according to the law.
Confessions obtained by physical or mental force shall not be admissible as evidence of guilt.
Any case of doubt, it shall be resolved in favor of the accused.
The accused shall be considered innocent until the court has judged finally on the case.
Every citizen shall enjoy the right to defense through judicial recourse.

Article 39:
Khmer citizens shall have the right to denounce, make complaints or file claims against any breach of the law by state and social organs or by members of such organs committed during the course of their duties. The settlement of complaints and claims shall be the competence of the courts.

Article 40:
Citizens' freedom to travel, far and near and legal settlement shall be respected.
Khmer citizens shall have the right to travel and settle abroad and return to the country.
The rights to privacy of residence, and to the secrecy of correspondence by mail, telegram, fax, telex and telephone shall be guaranteed.
Any search of the house, material and body shall be in accordance with the law.

Article 41:
Khmer citizens shall have freedom of expression, press, publication and assembly. No one shall exercise this right to infringe upon the rights of others, to affect the good traditions of the society, to violate public law and order and national security.
The regime of the media shall be determined by law.

Article 42:
Khmer Citizens shall have the right to establish associations and political parties. These rights shall be determined by law.
Khmer citizens may take part in mass organizations for mutual benefit to protect national achievement and social order.

Article 43:
Khmer citizens of either sex shall have the right to freedom of belief.
Freedom of religious belief and worship shall be guaranteed by the State on the condition that such freedom does not affect other religious beliefs or violate public order and security.
Buddhism shall be the religion of the State.

Article 44:
All persons, individually or collectively, shall have the right to ownership. Only Khmer legal entities and citizens of Khmer nationality shall have the right to own land.
Legal private ownership shall be protected by law.
The right to confiscate properties from any person shall be exercised only in the public interest as provided for under the law and shall require fair and just compensation in advance.

Article 45:
All forms of discrimination against women shall be abolished.
The exploitation of women in employment shall be prohibited.
Men and women are equal in all fields especially with respect to marriage and family matters.
Marriage shall be conducted according to conditions determined by law based on the principle of mutual consent between one husband and one wife.

Article 46:
The commerce of human beings, exploitation by prostitution and obscenity which affect the reputation of women shall be prohibited.
A woman shall not lose her job because of pregnancy. Woman shall have the right to take maternity leave with full pay and with no loss of seniority or other social benefits.
The state and society shall provide opportunities to women, especially to those living in rural areas without adequate social support, so they can get employment, medical care, and send their children to school, and to have decent living conditions.

Article 47:
Parents shall have the duty to take care of and educate their children to become good citizens.
Children shall have the duty to take good care of their elderly mother and father according to Khmer traditions.

Article 48:
The State shall protect the rights of children as stipulated in the Convention on Children, in particular, the right to life, education, protection during wartime, and from economic or sexual exploitation.
The State shall protect children from acts that are injurious to their educational opportunities, health and welfare.

Article 49:
Every Khmer citizen shall respect the Constitution and laws.
All Khmer citizens shall have the duty to take part in the national reconstruction and to defend the homeland. The duty to defend the country shall be determined by law.

Article 50:
Khmer citizens of either sex shall respect the principles of national sovereignty, liberal multi-party democracy.
Khmer citizens of either sex shall respect public and legally acquired private properties.

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CHAPTER IV: ON POLICY

Article 51- New (As amended March 1999):
The Kingdom of Cambodia adopts a policy of Liberal Democracy and Pluralism.
The Cambodian people are the masters of their own country.
All power belongs to the people. The people exercise these powers through the National Assembly, The Senate, the Royal Government and the Judiciary.
The legislative, executive, and judicial powers shall be separate.

Article 52:
The Royal Government of Cambodia shall protect the independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity of the Kingdom of Cambodia, adopt the policy of national reconciliation to insure national unity, and preserve the good national traditions of the country. The Royal Government of Cambodia shall preserve and protect the law and ensure public order and security. The State shall give priority to endeavors which improve the welfare and standard of living of citizens.

Article 53:
The Kingdom of Cambodia adopts a policy of permanent neutrality and non-alignment. The Kingdom of Cambodia follows a policy of peaceful co-existence with its neighbors and with all other countries throughout the world.
The Kingdom of Cambodia shall not invade any country, nor interfere in any other country's internal affairs, directly or indirectly, and shall solve any problems peacefully with due respect for mutual interests.
The Kingdom of Cambodia shall not joint in any military alliance or military pact which is incompatible with its policy of neutrality.
The Kingdom of Cambodia shall not permit any foreign military base on its territory and shall not have its own military base abroad, except within the framework of a United Nations request.
The Kingdom of Cambodia reserves the right to receive foreign assistance in military equipment, armaments, ammunitions, in training of its armed forces, and other assistance for self-defense and to maintain public order and security within its territory.

Article 54:
The manufacturing, use and storage of nuclear, chemical or biological weapons shall be absolutely prohibited.

Article 55:
Any treaty and agreement incompatible with the independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity, neutrality and national unity of the Kingdom of Cambodia shall be annulled.

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CHAPTER V: ECONOMY

Article 56:
The Kingdom of Cambodia shall adopt the market economy system.
The preparation and process of this economic system shall be determined by the law.

Article 57:
Tax collection shall be in accordance with the law. The national budget shall be determined by law.
Management of the monetary and financial system shall be defined by law.

Article 58:
State property notably comprises land, mineral resources, mountains, sea, underwater, continental shelf, coastline, airspace, islands, rivers, canals, streams, lakes, forests, natural resources, economic and cultural centers, bases for national defense and other facilities determined as State property.
The control, use and management of State properties shall be determined by law.

Article 59:
The State shall protect the environment and balance of abundant natural resources and establish a precise plan of management of land, water, air, wind, geology, ecological system, mines, energy, petrol and gas, rocks and sand, gems, forests and forestry products, wildlife, fish and aquatic resources.

Article 60:
Khmer citizens shall have the right to sell their product. The obligation to sell products to the State, or the temporary use of private or State properties shall be prohibited unless authorized by law under special circumstances.

Article 61:
The State shall promote economic development in all sectors and remote areas, especially in agriculture, handicrafts, industry, with attention to policies of water, electricity, roads and means of transport, modern technology and a system of credit.

Article 62:
The State shall pay attention and help solve production matters, protect the price of products for farmers, crafters, and find marketplace for them to sell their products.

Article 63:
The State shall respect market management in order to guarantee a better standard of living for the people.

Article 64:
The State shall ban and severely punish those who import, manufacture sell illicit drugs, counterfeit and expired goods which affect the health and life of the consumers.

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CHAPTER VI: EDUCATION, CULTURE, SOCIAL AFFAIRS

Article 65:
The State shall protect and upgrade citizens' rights to quality education at all levels and shall take necessary steps for quality education to reach all citizens.
The State shall respect physical education and sports for the welfare of all Khmer citizens.

Article 66:
The state shall establish a comprehensive and standardized educational system throughout the country that shall guarantee the principles of educational freedom and quality to ensure that all citizens have equal opportunity to earn a living.

Article 67:
The State shall adopt an educational program according to the principle of modern pedagogy including technology and foreign languages.
The State shall control public and private schools and classrooms at all levels.

Article 68:
The State shall provide free primary and secondary education to all citizens in public schools.
Citizens shall receive education for at least 9 years.
The State shall disseminate and develop the Pali schools and the Buddhist Institute.

Article 69:
The State shall preserve and promote national culture.
The State shall Protect and promote the Khmer language as required.
The State shall preserve ancient monuments and artifacts and restore historic sites.

Article 70:
Any offense affecting cultural artistic heritage shall carry a severe punishment.

Article 71:
The perimeter of the national heritage sites as well as heritage that has been classified as world heritage shall be considered neutral zones where there shall be no military activity.

Article 72:
The health of the people shall be guaranteed. The State shall give full consideration to disease prevention and medical treatment. Poor citizens shall receive free medical consultation in public hospitals, infirmaries and maternities.
The State shall establish infirmaries and maternities in rural areas.

Article 73:
The State shall give full consideration to children and mothers. The State shall establish nurseries, and help support women and children who have inadequate support.

Article 74:
The State shall assist the disabled and the families of combatants who sacrificed their lives for the nation.

Article 75:
The State shall establish a social security system for workers and employees.

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CHAPTER VII: THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

Article 76:
The National Assembly consists of at least 120 members.
The deputies shall be elected by a free, universal, equal, direct and secret ballot.
The deputies may be re-elected.
Khmer citizens able to stand for election shall be the Khmer citizens of either sex, who have the right to vote, at least 25 years of age, and who have Khmer nationality at birth.
Preparation for the election, procedure and electoral process shall be determined by an Electoral Law.

Article 77:
The deputies in the National Assembly shall represent the entire Khmer people, not only Khmers from their constituencies.
Any imperative mandate shall be nullified.

Article 78:
The legislative term of the National Assembly shall be 5 years and terminates on the day when the new National Assembly convenes.
The National Assembly shall not be dissolved before the end of its term except when the Royal government is twice deposed within a period of twelve months. In this case, following a proposal from the Prime Minister and the approval of the Chairman of the National Assembly, the King shall dissolve the National Assembly.
The election of a new National Assembly shall be held no later than 60 days from the date of dissolution. During this period, the Royal government shall only be empowered to conduct routine business.
In time of war or other special circumstances where an election cannot be held, the National Assembly may extend its term for one year at a time, upon the request of the King.
Such an extension shall require at least a two-third vote of the entire National Assembly.

Article 79:
The National Assembly mandate shall be incompatible with the holding of any active public function and of any membership in other institutions provided for in the Constitution, except when the assembly members (s) is (are) required to serve in the Royal Government.
In this circumstance, the said assembly member (s) shall retain the usual assembly membership but shall not hold any position in the Permanent Standing Committee and in other assembly commissions.

Article 80:
The deputies shall enjoy parliamentary immunity.
No assembly member shall be prosecuted, detained or arrested because of opinions expressed during the exercise of his (her) duties.
The accusation, arrest, or detention of an assembly member shall be made only with the permission of the National Assembly or by the Standing Committee of the National Assembly between sessions, except in case of flagrant delicto. In that case, the competent authority shall immediately report to the National Assembly or to the Standing Committee for decision.
The decision made by the Standing Committee of the National Assembly shall be submitted to the National Assembly at its next session for approval by a 2/3 majority vote of the assembly members.
In any case, detention or prosecution of a deputy shall be suspended by a 3/4 majority vote of the National Assembly members.

Article 81:
The National Assembly shall have an autonomous budget to conduct its function.
The deputies shall have received remuneration.

Article 82:
The National Assembly shall hold its first session no later than sixty days after the election upon notice by the King.
Before taking office, the National Assembly shall decide on the validity of each member's mandate and vote separately to choose a Chairman, Vice-Chairmen and members of each Commission by a 2/3 majority vote.
All National Assembly members must take oath before taking office according to the text contained in Annex 5.

Article 83:
The National Assembly shall hold its ordinary session twice a year.
Each session shall last at least three months. If there is a proposal from the King or the Prime Minister or at least 1/3 of the National Assembly members, the National Assembly Standing Committee shall call an extraordinary session of the National Assembly.
In this case, the agenda with the conditions of the extraordinary session shall be disseminated to the population as well as the date of the meeting.

Article 84:
Between the National Assembly sessions, the National Assembly Standing Committee shall manage the work of the National Assembly.
The Permanent Standing Committee of the National Assembly consists of the Chairman of the National Assembly, the Vice-Chairmen, and the Chairmen of National Assembly Commissions.

Article 85:
The National Assembly sessions shall be held in the Royal Capital of Cambodia in the Assembly Hall, unless stipulated otherwise in the summons, due to special circumstances.
Except where so stipulated and unless held at the place and date as stipulated, any meeting of the National Assembly shall be considered as illegal and void.

Article 86:
If the country is in a state of emergency, the National Assembly shall meet every day continuously. The National Assembly has the right to terminate this state of emergency whenever the situation permits.
If the National Assembly is not able to meet because of circumstances such as the occupation by foreign forces the declaration of the state of emergency must be automatically extended.
During the state of emergency, the National Assembly shall not be dissolved.

Article 87:
The Chairman of the National Assembly shall chair the assembly session; receive draft bills and resolutions adopted by the National Assembly, ensure the implementation of the Internal Rules of Procedure and manage the assembly relations with foreign countries.
If the Chairman is unable to perform his/her duties due to illness or to fulfill the function of Head of State as interim or as a Regent, or is on a mission abroad, a Vice-Chairman shall replace him.
In case of resignation or death of the Chairman or the Vice-Chairman (men), the National Assembly shall elect a new Chairman or Vice-Chairman (men).

Article 88:
The National Assembly sessions shall be held in public.
The National Assembly shall meet in closed session at the request of the Chairman or of at least 1/10 of its members, of the King or of the Prime Minister.
The National Assembly meeting shall be considered as valid provided there is a quorum of 7/10 of all members.

Article 89:
Upon the request by at least 1/10 of its members the National Assembly shall invite a high ranking official to clarify important special issues.

Article 90- New (As amended March 1999):
The National Assembly is the only an organ which has legislative power, and performs its duties as provided for in the constitution and laws.
This power shall not be transferable to any other organ or individual.
The National Assembly shall approve the national budget, State planning, loans, financial contracts, and the creation, modification and annulment of tax.
The National Assembly shall approve administration accounts.
The National Assembly shall adopt the law on the general amnesty.
The National Assembly shall adopt or repeal treaties and International Convention.
The National Assembly shall adopt the law on proclamation of war.
The adoption of the above clauses shall be done by the absolute majority of all members of the entire National Assembly membership.
The National Assembly shall pass a vote of confidence in the Royal Government by a two-third majority of all members of the entire National Assembly membership.

Article 91- New (As amended March 1999):
The members of the Senate, the members of the National Assembly and the Prime Minister have the right to initiate legislation.
Deputies have the right to propose amendments to the laws but these proposals cannot be accepted if they aim at reducing public income or increasing the burden on the people.

Article 92:
Laws adopted by the National Assembly which run counter to the principles of preserving national independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity, and affect the political unity or the administration of the nation shall be annulled. The Constitutional Council is the only organ which shall decide upon this annulment.

Article 93- New (As amended March 1999):
Any law approved by the assembly and finally reviewed by the Senate and signed by the King for its promulgation shall go into effect in Phnom Penh ten days after its signing and throughout the country twenty days after its signing.
Laws that are stipulated as urgent shall take effect immediately throughout the country after promulgation.
Laws that are signed by the King for its promulgation shall be published in the official journal and announced it to the public throughout the country.

Article 94:
The National Assembly shall establish various necessary commissions. The organization and functioning of the National Assembly shall be determined by the Internal Rules of Procedure of the National Assembly.

Article 95:
In case of death, resignation, or dismissal of an assembly deputy at least 6 months before the end of the mandate, a replacement shall be appointed in accordance with the Internal Rules of Procedure of the National Assembly and the Electoral Law.

Article 96:
The deputies have the right to put a motion against the Royal Government. The motion shall be submitted in writing through the Chairman of the National Assembly.
The replies shall be given by one or several ministers depending on the matters related to the accountability of one or several ministers. If the case concerns the overall policy of the Royal Government, the Prime Minister shall reply in person.
The explanations by the ministers or by the Prime Minister shall be given verbally or in writing.
The explanations shall be provided within 7 days after the day when the question is received.
In case of verbal reply, the Chairman of the National Assembly shall decide whether to hold an open debate or not. If there is no debate, the answer of the minister or the Prime Minister shall be considered final. If there is a debate, the questioner, other speakers, the ministers, or the Prime Minister may exchange views within the time-frame not exceeding one session.
The National Assembly shall establish one day each week for questions and answers. There shall be no vote during any session reserved for this purpose.

Article 97:
The National Assembly commissions may invite any minister to clarify certain issues under his/her field of responsibility.

Article 98: The National Assembly shall dismiss a member or members of the Royal Government or the whole Cabinet by the adoption of a motion of censure by 2/3 majority of the entire National Assembly.
The motion of censure shall be proposed to the National Assembly by at least 30 assembly members in order for the entire National Assembly to decide.

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CHAPTER VIII: THE SENATE

Article 99- New (As amended March 1999):
The Senate is a body that has legislative power and performs its duties as determined in the constitution and law.
The Senate consists of members the number of which does not exceed half of all of the members of the Assembly.
Some Senators shall be nominated and some shall be elected universally.
A Senator can be re-nominated and reelected.

Article 100- New (As amended March 1999):
The king shall nominate two Senators.
The Assembly shall elect two Senators by majority Vote.
Others shall be universally elected.

Article 101- New (As amended March 1999):
The organization and operating procedures concerning the nomination and election of the Senators and the determination of the electors, election organization and electoral constituencies shall be determined by law.

Article 102- New (As amended March 1999):
The term for Senators is six years and this term shall expire upon replacement by new Senators.
When the election of the Senator cannot be conducted due to war and special circumstances, the Senate can continue its term year by year upon the proposal of the King.
The declaration of continuity of its term shall be decided by at least a two-third majority of all members of the senate.
In the circumstance described above the Senate shall assemble everyday. The Senate has the right to terminate the above situation with good reason.
If the Senate cannot assemble due to the invasion of foreign troops the proclamation of the state of emergency shall be continuously in effect automatically.

Article 103- New (As amended March 1999):
The mandate of senators shall be incompatible with the holding of any active public function, with the functions of members of the National Assembly, and of any membership in other institutions provided for in the constitution.

Article 104- New (As amended March 1999):
The Senator shall enjoy parliamentary immunity.
No Senator shall be prosecuted, detained or arrested because of opinions expressed during the exercise of his or her duties.
The accusation, arrest, or detention of a senator shall be made only with the permission of the Senate or by the Standing Committee of the Senate between sessions, except in the case of flagrant delicto. In that case the competent authority shall immediately report to the senate or to the Standing Committee for decision.
The decision made by the Standing Committee of the Senate shall be submitted to the Senate at its session for approval by a two-thirds majority vote of all senators. In any case, detention or prosecution of a Senator shall be suspended by a three-quarters majority vote of all senators.

Article 105- New (As amended March 1999):
The Senate shall have an autonomous budget to conduct its functions.
Senators shall receive remuneration.

Article 106- New (As amended March 1999):
The Senate shall hold its first session no later than sixty days after the election upon notice by the King.
Before taking office, the Senate shall decide on the validity of each member's mandate and vote separately to choose a president, Vice president and its members of each commission by a two- third majority vote.
All Senators must take the oath before taking office according to the text contained in annex 7.

Article 107- New (As amended March 1999):
The Senate shall hold its ordinary sessions twice a year. Each session shall last at least three months. If there is a proposal from the king or the prime Minister, or at least one-third of the senate, the Senate standing Committee shall call an extraordinary session of the Senate.

Article 108- New (As amended March 1999):
Between the senate sessions, the Senate Standing Committee shall mange the work of the Senate.
The permanent Standing Committee of the Senate consists of the President of the Senate and the Vice- presidents and the Presidents of the senate commissions.

Article 109- New (As amended March 1999):
The Senate sessions shall be held in the Royal capital of Cambodia in the Senate Hall, unless stipulated otherwise in the summons, owing to special circumstances.
Except where so stipulated and unless held at the place and date as stipulated any meeting of the Senate shall be considered as illegal and void.

Article 110- New (As amended March 1999):
The president of the Senate shall chair the Senate sessions, receive draft bill and resolutions adopted by the senate, ensure the implementation of the internal rules of procedure and manage the senate's relations with foreign countries.
If the President is unable to perform his duties owing to illness or to fulfill the functions of Head of State as interim or as Regent, or is on a mission abroad, a Vice President shall replace him.
In case of resignation or death of the president or Vice Presidents, the Assembly shall elect a new President or Vice Presidents.

Article 111- New (As amended March 1999):
The Senate sessions shall be held in public.
The Senate shall meet in closed session at the request of the President or of at least one-tenths of its members, of the King or of the Prime Minister or the President of Assembly.
The Senate meeting shall be considered as valid provided there is a quorum of seven-tenths of all members.
The numbers of votes which are required for the Assembly approval as provided for in the constitution shall be applied to the Senate as well.

Article 112- New (As amended March 1999):
The Senate has the duties to coordinate the work between the Assembly and the Government.

Article 113- New (As amended March 1999):
The senate shall examine and give a recommendation to a draft or proposed law that was firstly adopted by the Assembly and other matters that the Assembly submitted within no more than one month. If it is an emergency case that duration shall be reduced to seven days.
If the Senate approves, or disapproves but not within the time limit stipulated above, the law adopted by the Assembly shall be promulgated.
If the Senate calls for the modification of the draft and the proposed law the Assembly shall take that draft and that proposed law into account a second time immediately. The Assembly shall examine and decide whether to eliminate all or some of the provisions or any terms that the Senate calls for so doing.
The exchange of the draft or the proposed law between the Senate and the Assembly shall be done only within one month. This duration shall be reduced to ten days if it is the case of national budget or finance and the duration shall be reduced to only two days if it is an urgent case.
If the Assembly withholds for longer than the time stipulated or delays while inspecting the law the principle duration for the Assembly and the Senate shall be extended so that the time duration for both are equal.
If the Senate rejects the draft or the proposed law this draft or proposed law cannot be reviewed a second time by the Assembly before one-month duration. This duration shall be reduced to fifteen days in the case of the national budget and finance cases and to four days if it is an urgent case.
In the examination of the draft and the proposed law a second time the Assembly shall adopt same by open vote with an absolute majority.
The draft or the proposed laws adopted by the above method shall then be sent for promulgation.

Article 114- New (As amended March 1999):
The Senate shall establish necessary commissions. The organizing and the functioning of the Senate shall be provided for in the Internal Rules of the Senate. These internal rules shall be approved by a two-third majority vote of all senators.

Article 115- New (As amended March 1999):
In the case of a senator dying, resigning, or breaching the rules of membership of the senate, within at least six months before expiration of the term, the vacancy shall be filled by a person appointed or elected according to the procedures stipulated in the internal rules of the Senate and the law on the election and nomination of senators.

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CHAPTER IX: THE ASSEMBLY AND THE SENATE

Article 116- New (As amended March 1999):
In the special case, the Assembly and the Senate can assemble as the congress to resolve the important issues of the nation.

Article 117- New (As amended March 1999):
The national issues mentioned above in new article 116 and the organizing and functioning of the congress shall be determined by Law.

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CHAPTER X: THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT

Article 118- New (Previously Article 99):
The Council of Ministers is the Royal Government of Cambodia.
The Council of Ministers shall be led by one Prime Minister assisted by Deputy Prime Ministers, and by State Ministers, Ministers, and State Secretaries as members.

Article 119- New (Previously Article 100):
At the recommendation of the Chairman and with the agreement of both the Vice-Chairmen of the National Assembly, the King shall designate a dignitary from among the representatives of the winning party to form the Royal Government. This designated representative along with other members chosen from the political parties or represented in the National Assembly, then present themselves to the National Assembly to ask for a vote of confidence.
After the National Assembly has given its vote of confidence, the King shall issue a Royal Decree (Kret) appointing the entire Council of Ministers.
Before taking office, the Council of Ministers shall take an oath as stipulated in Annex 6.

Article 120- New (Previously Article 101):
The functions of members of the Royal Government shall be incompatible with professional activities in trade or industry and with the holding of any position in the public service.

Article 121- New (Previously Article 102):
Members of the Royal Government shall be collectively responsible to the National Assembly for the overall policy of the Royal Government.
Each member of the Royal Government shall be individually responsible to the Prime Minister and the National Assembly for his/her own conduct.

Article 122- New (Previously Article 103):
Members of the Royal Government shall not use the orders, written or verbal, of anyone as grounds to exonerate themselves from their responsibility.

Article 123- New (Previously Article 104):
The Council of Ministers shall meet every week in plenary session or in a working session.
The Prime Minister shall chair the plenary sessions.
The Prime Minister may assign a Deputy Prime Minister to preside over the working sessions.
Minutes of the Council of Minister's meetings shall be forwarded to the King for His information.

Article 124- New (Previously Article 105):
The Prime Minister shall have the right to delegate his power to a Deputy Prime Minister or to any member of the Royal Government.

Article 125- New (Previously Article 106):
If the post of Prime Minister is permanently vacant, a new Council of Ministers shall be appointed under the procedure stipulated in this Constitution. If the vacancy is temporary, an acting Prime Minister shall be provisionally appointed.

Article 126- New (Previously Article 107):
Each member of the Royal Government shall be punished for any crimes or misdemeanors that he/she has committed in the course of his/her duty.
In such cases and when he/she has committed serious offenses in the course of his/her duty, the Assembly shall decide to file charges against him/her with the competent court.
The assembly shall decide on such matters through a secret vote by a simple majority thereof.

Article 127- New (Previously Article 108):
The organization and functioning of the Council of Ministers shall be determined by law.

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CHAPTER XI: THE JUDICIARY

Article 128- New (Previously Article 109):
The Judicial power shall be an independent power
The Judiciary shall guarantee and uphold impartiality and protect the rights and freedoms of the citizens.
The Judiciary shall cover all lawsuits including administrative ones.
The authority of the Judiciary shall be granted to the Supreme Court and to the lower courts of all sectors and levels.

Article 129- New (Previously Article 110):
Trials shall be conducted in the name of Khmer citizens in accordance with the legal procedures and laws in force.
Only judges shall have the right to adjudicate. A judge shall fulfill this duty with strict respect for the laws, wholeheartedly, and conscientiously.

Article 130- New (Previously Article 111):
Judicial power shall not be granted to the legislative or executive branches.

Article 131- New (Previously Article 112):
Only the Department of Public Prosecution shall have the right to file criminal suits.

Article 132- New (Previously Article 113):
The King shall be the guarantor of the independence of the Judiciary. The Supreme Council of the Magistracy shall assist the King in this matter.

Article 133- New (Previously Article 114):
Judges shall not be dismissed. The Supreme Council of the Magistracy shall take disciplinary actions against any delinquent judges.

Article 134- New (Previously Article 115):
The Supreme Council of the Magistracy shall be chaired by the King. The King may appoint a representative to chair the Supreme Council of the Magistracy.
The Supreme Council of the Magistracy shall be chaired by the King. The King may appoint a representative to chair the Supreme Council of the Magistracy.
The Supreme Council of the Magistracy shall make proposals to the King on the appointment of judges and prosecutors to all courts.
The Supreme Council of Magistracy shall meet under the chairmanship of the President of the Supreme Court or the General Prosecutor of the Supreme Court to decide on disciplinary actions against judges or prosecutors.

Article 135- New (Previously Article 116):
The statutes of judges and prosecutors and the functioning of the judiciary shall be defined in separate laws.

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CHAPTER XII: THE CONSTITUTIONAL COUNCIL

Article 136- New (previously Article 117 and as amended March 1999):
The Constitutional Council shall have the duty to safeguard respect of the constitution, interpret the Constitution and laws adopted by the National Assembly and reviewed completely by the Senate.
The Constitutional Council shall have the right to receive and decide on disputes concerning the election of deputies and the election of members of Senate.

Article 137- New (Previously Article 118):
The Constitutional Council shall consist of nine members with a nine-year mandate. 1/3 of the members of the Council shall be replaced every three years. 3 members shall be appointed by the King, 3 members by the National Assembly and 3 others by the Supreme Council of the Magistracy.
The Chairman shall be elected by the members of the Constitutional Council. He/she shall have a deciding vote in cases of equal vote.

Article 138- New (Previously Article 119):
Members of the Constitutional Council member shall be selected among the dignitaries with a higher-education degree in law, administration, diplomacy or economics and who have considerable work experience.

Article 139- New (previously Article 120 and as amended March 1999):
The function of member of the Constitutional Council shall be incompatible with the functions of members of Senate, deputies, members of the royal government, sitting Judges, any function in public service, President or Vice-president of a political party or President or Vice-president of a union.

Article 140- New (previously Article 121 and as amended March 1999):
The King, The Prime Minister, The President of the National Assembly, 1/10 of the members of National Assembly, The President of the Senate, or 1/4 of the members of Senate may send draft laws adopted by National Assembly to the Constitutional Council for review before promulgation.
Internal rules of the National Assembly, Internal rules of the Senate and other organizational laws shall be sent to the Constitutional Council for review before their promulgation. The constitutional council shall decide within thirty days (30) at the latest whether the above laws and internal rules of the National Assembly or the Senate are constitutional.

Article 141- New (previously Article 122 and as amended March 1999):
After promulgation of any law, the King, the President of the Senate, the President of the National Assembly, the Prime Minister, ¼ of members of Senate, 1/10 of members of National Assembly or the Courts may request the Constitutional Council to review the constitutionality of that law.
Khmer Citizens shall have the right to appeal against the constitutionality of any law through their representative or President of National Assembly or member of the Senate or President of the Senate as mentioned in the above articles.

Article 142- New (Previously Article 123):
Provisions in any article ruled by the Constitutional Council as unconstitutional shall not be promulgated or implemented.
The decision of the Constitutional Council is final.

Article 143- New (Previously Article 124):
The King shall consult with the Constitutional Council on all proposals to amend the Constitution.

Article 144- New (Previously Article 125):
An organic law shall specify the organization and operation of the Constitutional Council.

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CHAPTER XIII: THE ADMINISTRATION

Article 145- New (Previously Article 126):
The territory of the Kingdom of Cambodia shall be divided into provinces and municipalities.
Provinces shall be divided into districts (srok) and districts into communes (khum).
Municipalities shall be divided into Khan and Khan into Sangkat.

Article 146- New (Previously Article 127):
Provinces, municipalities, districts, khan, khum and sangkat shall be governed in accordance with organic law.

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CHAPTER XIV: THE NATIONAL CONGRESS

Article 147- New (Previously Article 128):
The National Congress shall enable the people to be directly informed on various matters of national interests and to raise issues and requests for the State authority to solve.
Khmer citizens of both sexes shall have the right to participate in the National Congress.

Article 148- New (Previously Article 129):
The National Congress shall meet once a year in early December at the convocation of the Prime Minister. It shall proceed under the chairmanship of the King.

Article 149- New (Previously Article 130):
The National Congress adopts recommendations the Senate the National Assembly and to the Executive branch for reflection.
The organization and operation of the National Congress should be determined by law.

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CHAPTER XV: EFFECTS, REVISIONS AND AMENDMENTS OF THE CONSTITUTION

Article 150- New (Previously Article 131):
This Constitution shall be the Supreme law of the Kingdom of Cambodia.
Laws and decisions by the State institutions shall have to be in strict conformity with the Constitution.

Article 151- New (Previously Article 132):
The initiative to review or to amend the Constitution shall be the prerogative of the King, the Prime Minister, the Chairman of the National Assembly at the suggestion of 1/4 of all the assembly members.
Revision or amendments shall be enacted by a Constitutional law passed by the National Assembly with a 2/3 majority vote.

Article 152- New (Previously Article 133):
Revisions or amendments shall be prohibited when the country is in a state of emergency, as outlined in Article 86.

Article 153- New (Previously Article 134):
Revision or amendment affecting the system of liberal and pluralistic democracy and the regime of Constitutional Monarchy shall be prohibited.

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CHAPTER XVI: TRANSITIONAL PROVISIONS

Article 154- New (Previously Article 135):
This Constitution, after its adoption, shall be declared in full force immediately by the King of Cambodia.

Article 155- New (Previously Article 136):
After the entry into force of this Constitution, the Constituent Assembly shall become the National Assembly.
The Internal Rules of Procedure of the National Assembly shall come into force after adoption by the National Assembly.
In the case where the National Assembly is not yet functional, the Chairman, the First and Second Vice-Chairmen of the Constituent Assembly shall participate in the discharge of duties in the Council of the Throne if so required by the situation in the country.

Article 156- New (Previously Article 137 and as amended March 1999):
After this Constitution takes effect, the King shall be selected in accordance with conditions stipulated in articles 13(New) and 14.

Article 157- New (Previously Article 138 and as amended March 1999):
After this constitution takes effect, and during the first legislature, the King of the Kingdom of Cambodia shall appoint a First Prime-Minister and a Second Prime Minister to form the Royal Government after securing the consent of the President and the two Vice Presidents of the Assembly.
The Co-Presidents existing before the adoption of this Constitution shall participate as members of the Committee and in the Throne Council as stipulated in article s 11 and 13 above.
The first term of the Senate shall be 5 years and shall be ended after the new Senate taking over the office.

For the first term of the Senate:

The total member of members shall be sixty-one.
The King shall appoint two members including the President the first Vice President the second Vice-President of the Senate.
Other members of the Senate shall be nominated by the king upon proposal by the president of Senate and President of National Assembly from among members of political parties which have seats in the National Assembly.
The joint meeting between the National Assembly and the Senate shall be conducted by both presidents of these institutions.

Article 158- New (Previously Article 139):
Laws and standard documents in Cambodia that safeguard State properties, rights, freedom and legal private properties and in conformity with the national interests, shall continue to be effective until altered or abrogated by new texts, except those provisions that are contrary to the spirit of this Constitution.

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This Constitution was adopted by the Constitutional Assembly in Phnom Penh on 21 September 1993 at its 2nd plenary session.

Phnom Penh, 21 September, 1993.
The President,

Signed: SON SAN

This Constitutional law was adopted by the National Assembly of the Kingdom of Cambodia on the 4th March, 1999 in its 2nd plenary meeting.

Phnom Penh, 6 March 1999
National Assembly President

Norodom Ranariddh
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Cambodian Population

Pupulation

An estimated 85-90 percent of the population lives in rural areas. Ethnically the population consists of about 90 percent Khmer, 5 percent each of Chinese and Vietnamese and small numbers of hill tribes (Chams and Burmese). Khmer is the country's official language. It is spoken by more than 95 percent of the population. French, as a second language Ian a is also spoken, mostly by older people. English is more commonly spoken by the younger generation. The Cambodian population presents several important features. First, due to the baby' boom after 1979, it is a young population with at least half (50% according to some sources, more according to others) under 18 years of age now. Secondly, the proportion of women in the adult population is high, 56% of those who are 18 years old or more being females. Also as a result of the war, there is a rather high proportion of women-headed household; at least 25% according to UNICEF. Cambodia and Laos' populations are dwarfed by those of Vietnam and Thailand, and average population densities in the smaller countries are much lower than in Vietnam. Even the very densely populated areas in Cambodia do not have such a concentration of population as can be found in the Red River and Mekong River Deltas in Vietnam. The population of Cambodia is 12,491,501 (2001 estimate). Population growth per year is estimated at 2.3 percent, one of the highest rates in Asia. The rate of infant mortality is also high. The population density is 69 persons per sq km (179 per sq mi), with the densest concentrations on the heavily cultivated central plain. The mountainous regions of the country, where malaria is widespread, are thinly populated, as are the poorly watered northern provinces. During the late 1970s, under the brutal rule of the Khmer Rouge, all of Cambodia's towns were depopulated, and residents were forcibly relocated to rural areas. A process of reurbanization began in the 1980s.

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Land Adn Resource of Cambodia

Overview
Cambodia covers an area of 181,035 sq km (69,898 sq mi). Most of the country consists of a low-lying alluvial plain that occupies the central part of the country. To the southeast of the plain lies the delta of the Mekong River. To the east of the plain, ranges of undulating hills separate Cambodia from Vietnam. To the southwest a mountain range, the Chuor Phnum Krâvanh, fringes the plain and forms a physical barrier along the country's coast. Cambodia's highest peak, Phnom Aural (1,813 m/5,948 ft) rises in the eastern part of this range. To the north, the Chuor Phnum Dangrek mountains separate Cambodia from Thailand.

Climate

Cambodia has a tropical monsoon climate. December and January are the coolest months, while March and April are the hottest. The country's rainy season extends from May to October. Average annual rainfall is about 1,400 mm (about 55 in) on the central plain and increases to as much as 3,800 mm (150 in) in the mountains and along the coast. The average annual temperature is about 27°C (about 80°F).

Plant and Animal

Forests cover 53 percent of Cambodia's land. The densest forests thrive in the mountains and along the southwestern coast. Higher plains and plateaus contain savannas covered with high, sharp grass. Plants growing in Cambodia include rubber, kapok (a tree with seeds that yield a cotton-like fiber), palm, coconut, and banana, all of which are exploited commercially.

Wildlife in Cambodia includes elephants, deer, wild ox, panthers, bears, and tigers. Cormorants, cranes, parrots, pheasants, and wild ducks are also found, and poisonous snakes are numerous. Logging and mining activities, along with unregulated hunting, have diminished the country's wildlife rapidly.

Natural Resource

Of Cambodia's total land area, only 21 percent is cultivated. Areas surrounding the Mekong and the Tônlé Sap are the most fertile regions. The country's once-ample timber resources have been poorly managed and are being rapidly depleted by local and foreign entrepreneurs. Although Cambodia is not rich in mineral resources, Batdâmbâng province in northwestern Cambodia contains limited quantities of zircons, sapphires, and rubies. The central part of the country contains commercial deposits of salt, manganese, and phosphate. The Gulf of Thailand is thought to contain petroleum deposits, but the extent and accessibility of the reserves have yet to be determined.

River and Lake

Cambodia's most important river is the Mekong, the longest river in Southeast Asia and the tenth largest in the world. The Mekong flows from north to south through Cambodia and is navigable for much of its course. Other rivers in the country include the Tonle Srepok and the Tonle Sab.

Cambodia's principal lake, the Tonle Sap (Great Lake), is the largest in Southeast Asia. From the northwest, the Tonle Sap drains into the Mekong via the Tonle Sab River, entering the Mekong at Phnom Penh. Each year during the monsoon season (approximately May to October), the waters of the Mekong increase and reverse the flow of the Tonle Sab, which begins to drain into the lake. The lake then expands dramatically, flooding the provinces along its banks. When dry weather returns, the river reverses its course again and flows back into the Mekong, draining the northwestern provinces. At the height of the flooding, the Tonle Sap reaches more than 10,000 sq km (4,000 sq mi), or about four times its size in the dry season. The lake is one of the richest sources of freshwater fish in the world.

Environment Issues

Deforestation is the most serious threat to Cambodia's environment. In the 1960s and 1970s Cambodian forests and wetlands were harmed by bombings and defoliants used in the Vietnam War. In the 1970s and 1980s the damage continued with the disastrous agricultural policies of the Khmer Rouge regime and civil war. In the relatively peaceful 1990s, timber became an important export for Cambodia. More than 800,000 hectares (2 million acres) of Cambodian forest were cut down from 1990 to 1995. In 1995 the government responded by banning log exports, but illegal timber exporting has led to continued deforestation.

Many of the mangrove swamps crucial to the country's fisheries and wildlife have been destroyed. The loss of wildlife habitat and the negative environmental effects of logging and mining industries have caused a decline in biodiversity.

In addition to banning the export of lumber, the Cambodian government has declared a large portion- 16.2 percent (1997)-of the country's total land area protected. The government has also ratified international environmental agreements pertaining to climate change, desertification, endangered species, marine life conservation, ship pollution, and tropical timber.
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Historical of kingdom of Wonder

No one knows for certain how long people have lived in what is now Cambodia, as studies of its prehistory are undeveloped. A carbon-l4 dating from a cave in northwestern Cambodia suggests that people using stone tools lived in the cave as early as 4000 bc, and rice has been grown on Cambodian soil since well before the 1st century ad. The first Cambodians likely arrived long before either of these dates. They probably migrated from the north, although nothing is known about their language or their way of life.

By the beginning of the 1st century ad, Chinese traders began to report the existence of inland and coastal kingdoms in Cambodia. These kingdoms already owed much to Indian culture, which provided alphabets, art forms, architectural styles, religions (Hinduism and Buddhism), and a stratified class system. Local beliefs that stressed the importance of ancestral spirits coexisted with the Indian religions and remain powerful today.

Cambodia's modem-day culture has its roots in the 1st to 6th centuries in a state referred to as Funan, known as the oldest Indianized state in Southeast Asia. It is from this period that evolved Cambodia's language, part of the Mon-Khmer family, which contains elements of Sanskrit, its ancient religion of Hinduism and Buddhism. Historians have noted, for example, that Cambodians can be distinguished from their neighbors by their clothing - checkered scarves known as Kramas are worn instead of straw hats.

Funan gave way to the Angkor Empire with the rise to power of King Jayavarman II in 802. The following 600 years saw powerful Khmer kings dominate much of present day Southeast Asia, from the borders of Myanmar east to the South China Sea and north to Laos. It was during this period that Khmer kings built the most extensive concentration of religious temples in the world - the Angkor temple complex. The most successful of Angkor's kings, Jayavarman II, Indravarman I, Suryavarman II and Jayavarman VII, also devised a masterpiece of ancient engineering: a sophisticated irrigation system that includes barays (gigantic man-made lakes) and canals that ensured as many as three rice crops a year. Part of this system is still in use today.

The Khmer Kingdom

Early Chinese writers referred to a kingdom in Cambodia that they called Funan. Modern-day archaeological findings provide evidence of a commercial society centered on the Mekong Delta that flourished from the 1st century to the 6th century. Among these findings are excavations of a port city from the 1st century, located in the region of Oc-Eo in what is now southern Vietnam. Served by a network of canals, the city was an important trade link between India and China. Ongoing excavations in southern Cambodia have revealed the existence of another important city near the present-day village of Angkor Borei.

A group of inland kingdoms, known collectively to the Chinese as Zhenla, flourished in the 6th and 7th centuries from southern Cambodia to southern Laos. The first stone inscriptions in the Khmer language and the first brick and stone Hindu temples in Cambodia date from the Zhenla period.

Angkor Era

Bayon Temple, Angkor Thum The giant faces carved on the Bayon temple at the Angkor Thum complex in northwestern Cambodia represent both the Buddha and King Jayavarman VII (ruled about 1130-1219). Although a Buddhist temple, Angkor Thum was modeled after the great Hindu temple complex of Angkor Wat.

In the early 9th century a Khmer (ethnic Cambodian) prince returned to Cambodia from abroad. He probably arrived from nearby Java or Sumatra, where he may have been held hostage by island kings who had asserted control over portions of the Southeast Asian mainland. In a series of ceremonies at different sites, the prince declared himself ruler of a new independent kingdom, which unified several local principalities. His kingdom eventually came to be centered near present-day Siemreab in northwestern Cambodia. The prince, known to his successors as Jayavarman II, inaugurated a cult honoring the Hindu god Shiva as a devaraja (Sanskrit term meaning "god-king"). The cult, which legitimized the king's rule by linking him with Shiva, persisted at the Cambodian court for more than two hundred years.

Between the early 9th century and the early 15th century, 26 monarchs ruled successively over the Khmer kingdom (known as Angkor, the modern name for its capital city). The successors of Jayavarman II built the great temples for which Angkor is famous. Historians have dated more than a thousand temple sites and over a thousand stone inscriptions (most of them on temple walls) to this era. Notable among the Khmer builder-kings were Suyavarman II, who built the temple known as Angkor Wat in the mid-12th century, and Jayavarman VII, who built the Bayon temple at Angkor Thum and several other large Buddhist temples half a century later. Jayavarman VII, a fervent Buddhist, also built hospitals and rest houses along the roads that crisscrossed the kingdom. Most of the monarchs, however, seem to have been more concerned with displaying and increasing their power than with the welfare of their subjects.

Ancient City of Angkor This map shows the layout of the ancient city of Angkor, capital of the Cambodian Khmer kingdom from the 9th century to the 15th century. The city's huge stone temples were both civic centers and religious symbols of the Hindu cosmos. Historians believe that Angkor's network of canals and barays (reservoirs) were used for irrigation.

At its greatest extent, in the 12th century, the Khmer kingdom encompassed (in addition to present-day Cambodia) parts of present-day Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar (formerly Burma), and the Malay Peninsula. Thailand and Laos still contain Khmer ruins and inscriptions. The kings at Angkor received tribute from smaller kingdoms to the north, east, and west, and conducted trade with China. The capital city was the center of an impressive network of reservoirs and canals, which historians theorize supplied water for irrigation. Many historians believe that the abundant harvests made possible by irrigation supported a large population whose labor could be drawn on to construct the kings' temples and to fight their wars. The massive temples, extensive roads and waterworks, and confident inscriptions give an illusion of stability that is undermined by the fact that many Khmer kings gained the throne by conquering their predecessors. Inscriptions indicate that the kingdom frequently suffered from rebellions and foreign invasions.

Historians have not been able to fully explain the decline of the Khmer kingdom in the 13th and 14th centuries. However, it was probably associated with the rise of powerful Thai kingdoms that had once paid tribute to Angkor, and to population losses following a series of wars with these kingdoms. Another factor may have been the introduction of Theravada Buddhism, which taught that anyone could achieve enlightenment through meritorious conduct and meditation. These egalitarian ideas undermined the hierarchical structure of Cambodian society and the power of prominent Hindu families. After a Thai invasion in 1431, what remained of the Cambodian elite shifted southeastward to the vicinity of Phnom Penh.

Cambodia Dark Age

This map of Southeast Asia in the mid-16th century shows the major centers of power in the region prior to the arrival of Europeans. During this period, these kingdoms were constantly at war. Eventually the Kingdom of Ayutthaya (modern Thailand) expanded to the north and east, absorbing much of Lan Na and Lan Xang (modern Laos). Dai Viet (modern Vietnam) expanded to the south, taking over the remaining territory of the Kingdom of Champa and the southern tip of the Kingdom of Lovek (modern Cambodia). Toungoo evolved into modern Myanmar.

The four centuries of Cambodian history following the abandonment of Angkor are poorly recorded, and therefore historians know little about them beyond the bare outlines. Cambodia retained its language and its cultural identity despite frequent invasions by the powerful Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya and incursions by Vietnamese forces. Indeed, for much of this period, Cambodia was a relatively prosperous trading kingdom with its capital at Lovek, near present-day Phnom Penh. European visitors wrote of the Buddhist piety of the inhabitants of the Kingdom of Lovek. During this period, Cambodians composed the country's most important work of literature, the Reamker (based on the Indian myth of the Ramayana).

In the late 18th century, a civil war in Vietnam and disorder following a Burmese invasion of Ayutthaya spilled over into Cambodia and devastated the area. In the early 19th century, newly established dynasties in Vietnam and Thailand competed for control over the Cambodian court. The warfare that ensued, beginning in the l830s, came close to destroying Cambodia.

French Rule

Phnom Penh, as planned by the French, came to resemble a town in provincial France.

By the second half of the 19th century, France had begun to expand its colonial penetration of Indochina (the peninsula between India and China). In 1863 France accepted the Cambodian king's invitation to impose a protectorate over his severely weakened kingdom, halting the country's dismemberment by Thailand and Vietnam. For the next 90 years, France ruled Cambodia. In theory, French administration was indirect, but in practice the word of French officials was final on all major subjects-including the selection of Cambodia's kings. The French left Cambodian institutions, including the monarchy, in place, and gradually developed a Cambodian civil service, organized along French lines. The French administration neglected education but built roads, port facilities, and other public works. Phnom Penh, as planned by the French, came to resemble a town in provincial France.

The French invested relatively little in Cambodia's economy compared to that of Vietnam, which was also under French control. However, they developed rubber plantations in eastern Cambodia, and the kingdom exported sizable amounts of rice under their rule. The French also restored the Angkor temple complex and deciphered Angkorean inscriptions, which gave Cambodians a clear idea of their medieval heritage and kindled their pride in Cambodia's past. Because France left the monarchy, Buddhism, and the rhythms of rural life undisturbed, anti-French feeling was slow to develop.

King Sihanouk, through skillful maneuvering, managed to gain Cambodia's independence peacefully in 1953.

During World War II (1939-1945), Japanese forces entered French Indochina but left the compliant French administration in place. On the verge of defeat in 1945, the Japanese removed their French collaborators and installed a nominally independent Cambodian government under the recently crowned young king, Norodom Sihanouk. France reimposed its protectorate in early 1946 but allowed the Cambodians to draft a constitution and to form political parties. Soon afterward, fighting erupted throughout Indochina as nationalist groups, some with Communist ideologies, struggled to win independence from France. Most of the fighting took place in Vietnam, in a conflict known as the First Indochina War (1946-1954). In Cambodia, Communist guerrilla forces allied with Vietnamese Communists gained control of much of the country. However, King Sihanouk, through skillful maneuvering, managed to gain Cambodia's independence peacefully in 1953, a few months earlier than Vietnam. The Geneva Accords of 1954, which marked the end of the First Indochina War, acknowledged Sihanouk's government as the sole legitimate authority in Cambodia.

Modern State

Sihanouk's campaign for independence sharpened his political skills and increased his ambitions. In 1955 he abdicated the throne in favor of his father to pursue a full-time political career, free of the constitutional constraints of the monarchy. In a move aimed at dismantling Cambodia's fledgling political parties, Sihanouk inaugurated a national political movement known as the Sangkum Reastr Niyum (People's Socialist Community), whose members were not permitted to belong to any other political group. The Sangkum won all the seats in the national elections of 1955, benefiting from Sihanouk's popularity and from police brutality at many polling stations. Sihanouk served as prime minister of Cambodia until 1960, when his father died and he was named head of state. Sihanouk remained widely popular among the people but was brutal to his opponents.

In the late 1950s the Cold War (period of tension between the United States and its allies and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, or USSR, and its allies) intensified in Asia. In this climate, foreign powers, including the United States, the USSR, and China, courted Sihanouk. Cambodia's importance to these countries stemmed from events in neighboring Vietnam, where tension had begun to mount between a Communist regime in the north and a pro-Western regime in the south. The USSR supported the Vietnamese Communists, while the United States opposed them, and China wanted to contain Vietnam for security reasons. Each of the foreign powers hoped that Cambodian support would bolster its position in the region. Sihanouk pursued a policy of neutrality that drew substantial economic aid from the competing countries.

In 1965, however, Sihanouk broke off diplomatic relations with the United States. At the same time, he allowed North Vietnamese Communists, then fighting the Vietnam War against the United States and the South Vietnamese in southern Vietnam, to set up bases on Cambodian soil. As warfare intensified in Vietnam, domestic opposition to Sihanouk from both radical and conservative elements increased. The Cambodian Communist organization, known as the Workers Party of Kampuchea (later renamed the Communist Party of Kampuchea, or CPK), had gone underground after failing to win any concessions at the Geneva Accords, but now they took up arms once again. As the economy became unstable, Cambodia became difficult to govern single-handedly. In need of economic and military aid, Sihanouk renewed diplomatic relations with the United States. Shortly thereafter, in 1969, U.S. president Richard Nixon authorized a bombing campaign against Cambodia in an effort to destroy Vietnamese Communist sanctuaries there.

Khmer Republic

In March 1970 Cambodia's legislature, the National Assembly, deposed Sihanouk while he was abroad. The conservative forces behind the coup were pro-Western and anti-Vietnamese. General Lon Nol, the country's prime minister, assumed power and sent his poorly equipped army to fight the North Vietnamese Communist forces encamped in border areas. Lon Nol hoped that U.S. aid would allow him to defeat his enemies, but American support was always geared to events in Vietnam. In April U.S. and South Vietnamese troops invaded Cambodia, searching for North Vietnamese, who moved deeper into Cambodia. Over the next year, North Vietnamese troops destroyed the offensive capacity of Lon Nol's army.

In October 1970 Lon Nol inaugurated the Khmer Republic. Sihanouk, who had sought asylum in China, was condemned to death despite his absence. By that time, Chinese and North Vietnamese leaders had persuaded the prince to establish a government in exile, allied with North Vietnam and dominated by the CPK, whom Sihanouk referred to as the Khmer Rouge (French for "Red Khmers").

In 1975, despite massive infusions of U.S. aid, the Khmer Republic collapsed, and Khmer Rouge forces occupied Phnom Penh.

The United States continued bombing Cambodia until the Congress of the United States halted the campaign in 1973. By that time, Lon Nol's forces were fighting not only the Vietnamese but also the Khmer Rouge. The general lost control over most of the Cambodian countryside, which had been devastated by U.S. bombing. The fighting severely damaged the nation's infrastructure and caused high numbers of casualties. Hundreds of thousands of refugees flooded into the cities. In 1975, despite massive infusions of U.S. aid, the Khmer Republic collapsed, and Khmer Rouge forces occupied Phnom Penh. Three weeks later, North Vietnamese forces achieved victory in South Vietnam.

Democratic Kampuchea

Pol Pot Pol Pot is a pseudonym for the Cambodian guerrilla commander Saloth Sar, who organized the Communist guerrilla force known as the Khmer Rouge. The Khmer Rouge ousted General Lon Nol in 1975, establishing a brutal Communist regime that ruled until 1979.

Immediately after occupying Cambodia's towns, the Khmer Rouge ordered all city dwellers into the countryside to take up agricultural tasks. The move reflected both the Khmer Rouge's contempt for urban dwellers, whom they saw as enemies, and their utopian vision of Cambodia as a nation of busy, productive peasants. The leader of the regime, who remained concealed from the public, was Saloth Sar, who used the pseudonym Pol Pot. The government, which called itself Democratic Kampuchea (DK), claimed to be seeking total independence from foreign powers but accepted economic and military aid from its major allies, China and North Korea.

Khmer Rouge Carnage The Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, killed close to 1.7 million people in the mid- to late 1970s. In this photo, human bones and skulls fill a museum in Cambodia that had been used as a prison and torture center during Pol Pot's reign, Sygma.

Without identifying themselves as Communists, the Khmer Rouge quickly introduced a series of far-reaching and often painful socialist programs. The people given the most power in the new government were the largely illiterate rural Cambodians who had fought alongside the Khmer Rouge in the civil war. DK leaders severely restricted freedom of speech, movement, and association, and forbade all religious practices. The regime controlled all communications along with access to food and information. Former city dwellers, now called "new people," were particularly badly treated. The Khmer Rouge killed intellectuals, merchants, bureaucrats, members of religious groups, and any people suspected of disagreeing with the party. Millions of other Cambodians were forcibly relocated, deprived of food, tortured, or sent into forced labor.

While in power, the Khmer Rouge murdered, worked to death, or killed by starvation close to 1.7 million Cambodians.

The Khmer Rouge also attacked neighboring countries in an attempt to reclaim territories lost by Cambodia many centuries before. After fighting broke out with Vietnam (then united under the Communists) in 1977, DK's ideology became openly racist. Ethnic minorities in Cambodia, including ethnic Chinese and Vietnamese, were hunted down and expelled or massacred. Purges of party members accused of treason became widespread. People in eastern Cambodia, suspected of cooperating with Vietnam, suffered severely, and hundreds of thousands of them were killed. While in power, the Khmer Rouge murdered, worked to death, or killed by starvation close to 1.7 million Cambodians-more than one-fifth of the country's population.

The war with Vietnam went badly for Cambodia, and in the second half of 1978 the DK tried to open the country up to the wider world, inviting journalists to visit and extending diplomatic recognition to several nonsocialist countries. In December 1978 the Vietnamese launched a blitzkrieg assault on Cambodia, using more than l00,000 troops. A group of Cambodian Communist rebels, the Khmer National United Front for National Salvation (KNUFNS), accompanied them. On January 7, 1979, the liberating forces occupied Phnom Penh, which the Khmer Rouge leaders had abandoned the day before. Pol Pot, his colleagues, and hundreds of thousands of followers sought refuge over the next few months along the Thai-Cambodian border. There they were protected by the Thai regime, which was hostile to Vietnam.

Vietnam Liberation

Vietnam established a satellite regime called the People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK) in January 1979. The new government included many former members of the Khmer Rouge who had defected to Vietnam, as well as some Cambodians who had sought refuge in Vietnam before the Khmer Rouge victory in 1975. After coming to power, the regime restored much of Cambodia's pre-1975 way of life, including the practice of Buddhism and a nationwide education system. For the time being, however, agriculture remained collectivized. Like all previous regimes, the new government treated its opponents harshly; like the Khmer Rouge, it severely limited people's freedom of expression. The pro-Vietnamese Kampuchean Peoples' Revolutionary Party (KPRP) monopolized political power and swept the 1981 elections for the National Assembly.

Meanwhile, remnants of the Khmer Rouge and other Cambodians who had fled to Thailand formed an anti-Vietnamese government in exile, which continued to be known as DK. China, Thailand, and the United States had disapproved of the overthrow of DK, viewing it as Vietnamese aggression, and encouraged the formation of the government in exile. With the support of these countries, DK retained Cambodia's seat in the United Nations (UN). Only a few foreign governments, including the USSR and India, recognized the PRK as Cambodia's legitimate government. Foreign aid to Cambodia was largely limited to the Soviet-led bloc of Communist nations.

Throughout the 1980s, Vietnam maintained more than 100,000 troops in Cambodia. Conflict between PRK and DK forces, combined with Cambodia's relative isolation, produced continuing economic instability. Thousands of people were killed in battle or maimed by landmines. In 1985 Cambodia's foreign minister, Hun Sen, became prime minister of the PRK.

Weary of socialism and the harsh conditions inside Cambodia, more than 500,000 Cambodians sought asylum in Thailand in the 1980s. More than 300,000 of these people eventually resettled in other countries, especially France and the United States. This outflow deprived Cambodia of thousands of trained personnel and removed many members of the small elite, whose ranks had already been thinned through execution and fatal illnesses under the Khmer Rouge.

Recent Development

In September 1989, as the Cold War ended and Soviet financing of the Vietnamese forces in Cambodia fell sharply, Vietnam withdrew its troops from Cambodia. The withdrawal left the Cambodian regime, under young prime minister Hun Sen, in a precarious position, deprived of all substantial foreign aid and threatened militarily by the forces of the Khmer Rouge and their allies on the Thai-Cambodian border. Soon afterward the PRK officially abandoned socialism, renamed itself the State of Cambodia (SOC), and introduced a range of reforms aimed at attracting foreign investment and increasing the popularity of the ruling KPRP, renamed the Cambodian People's Party (CPP).

Some members of the government became millionaires overnight, while the national economy was still stumbling to its feet.

A program of privatization, which ended collectivized agriculture, and a headlong rush toward free-market economics from 1989 to 1992 widened the inequities in Cambodian society. Some members of the government became millionaires overnight, while the national economy was still stumbling to its feet. As markets opened in Thailand and Vietnam, exploitation of Cambodia's gem and timber resources by foreign businesses became widespread. Meanwhile, fighting between government and Khmer Rouge forces intensified, as the Khmer Rouge occupied large areas in the relatively inhospitable northern part of the country.

In October 1991 Cambodia's warring factions, the UN, and a number of interested foreign nations signed an agreement in Paris intended to end the conflict in Cambodia. The agreement provided for a temporary power-sharing arrangement between a United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) and a Supreme National Council (SNC) made up of delegates from the various Cambodian factions. Prince Norodom Sihanouk, the former king and prime minister of Cambodia, served as president of the SNC.

The Paris accords and the UN protectorate pushed Cambodia out of its isolation and introduced competitive politics, dormant since the early 1950s. UNTAC sponsored elections for a national assembly in May 1993, and for the first time in Cambodian history a majority of voters rejected an armed, incumbent regime. A royalist party, known by its French acronym FUNCINPEC, won the most seats in the election, followed by the CPP, led by Hun Sen. Reluctant to give up power, Hun Sen threatened to upset the election results. Under a compromise arrangement, a three-party coalition formed a government headed by two prime ministers; FUNCINPEC's Prince Norodom Ranariddh, one of Sihanouk's sons, became first prime minister, while Hun Sen became second prime minister.

In September 1993 the government ratified a new constitution restoring the monarchy and establishing the Kingdom of Cambodia. Sihanouk became king for the second time. After the 1993 elections, no foreign countries continued to recognize the DK as Cambodia's legal government. The DK lost its UN seat as well as most of its sources of international aid.

The unrealistic power-sharing relationship between Ranariddh and Hun Sen worked surprisingly well for the next three years, but relations between the parties were never smooth. The CPP's control over the army and the police gave the party effective control of the country, and it dominated the coalition government. In July 1997 Hun Sen staged a violent coup against FUNCINPEC and replaced Prince Ranariddh, who was overseas at the time, with Ung Huot, a more pliable FUNCINPEC figure. Hun Sen's action shocked foreign nations and delayed Cambodia's entry into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). By the end of 1997, Cambodia was the only nation in the region that was not a member.

Despite the coup, elections scheduled for July 1998 proceeded as planned. Hundreds of foreign observers who monitored the elections affirmed that voting was relatively free and fair; however, the CPP harassed opposition candidates and party workers before and after the elections, when dozens were imprisoned and several were killed. The election gave the CPP a plurality of votes, but results, especially in towns, where voting could not be dictated by local authorities, indicated that the party did not enjoy widespread popular support. Prince Ranariddh and another opposition candidate, Sam Rainsy, took refuge abroad and contested the outcome of the election. In November the CPP and FUNCINPEC reached an agreement whereby Hun Sen became sole prime minister and Ranariddh became president of the National Assembly. The parties formed a coalition government, dividing control over the various cabinet ministries. In early 1999 the constitution was amended to create a Senate, called for in the 1998 agreement. These signs that Cambodia's political situation was stabilizing encouraged ASEAN to admit Cambodia to its membership a short time later.

Pol Pot died in 1998, and by early 1999 most of the remaining Khmer Rouge troops and leaders had surrendered. Rebel troops were integrated into the Cambodian army. In 1999 two Khmer Rouge leaders were arrested and charged with genocide for their part in the atrocities.

Since the Paris Accords of 1991, Cambodia's economic growth has depended on millions of dollars of foreign aid. Foreign interest in Cambodia has decreased, however, and the country has received diminishing economic assistance. This development, along with the continued lack of openness in Cambodian politics, has made Cambodia's prospects for democratization dim, as well as its chances for sustained economic growth.
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